Piagets and Vygotskys explanation

Piagets and Vygotskys explanation In this essay I will be outlining the main differences and similarities between Piagets and Vygotskys explanation of cognitive development in children. Cognition is the study of the thought process or mental activity by which us individuals acquire and deal with knowledge. The study of the human cognition is a vast field and there are wide varieties of topics. The two most influential theories of cognitive development are from Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky. Each of their theory has key aspects of cognitive development across childhood. Firstly, according to Siegler (1998), Piagets theory of cognitive development is considered the most important to emerge from the study of human development, and the most controversial theory as well, according to Beilin (1992). Piagets observations of children provide a remarkable inside for what cognitive development is supposed to be like (Siegler, 1998). He provided answers to questions regarding intelligence and how one develops their knowledge. He believed that children develop in reaction to their environment, and the rewards and punishments it provides, Piaget argued that children actively explore their worlds, and their thoughts are ultimately derived from the actions of the world. Children according to him construct their reality as they manipulate and explore their world, cognitive structures which Piaget termed schemes. A scheme is an interrelated set of memories, thoughts, or strategies which are employed to predict and understand the environment. He believed that as children grow, they develop and refine their schemes. Central to Piagets theory are two biological concept, adaption and organization. Organization refers to an individuals tendency to organize their cognitive structures or schemes into efficient systems (Lutz and Sternberg, 1999). Organization can take place independent of any interaction with the environment. He believes that children naturally begin to link schemes together, creating more organized and interrelated cognitive system. For example, infants eventually begin to link together schemes developed for reaching, grasping and sucking objects, combining these into more complex structures that can be generalized to other situations and thus further their ability to negotiate the environment. Initially they cant combine these actions, but through the process of organization they become able to do so. This brings us to the concept of adaption. Adaption involves the creation of cognitive structure or schemes through our interactions with the environment. Adaption is achieved through assimilation or accommodation (Piaget, 1952). Assimilation is the process of integrating the environment into ones current psychological structures (Lutz and Sternberg, 1999). When the child assimilates something, they mould it to fit in with their existing structures. Accommodation is the opposite process, it occurs when old schemes are adjusted to fit better fit with the demands of the environment. For example, the infant sees an object lying on the floor; they can assimilate into her experience, applying her grasping scheme. The infant then encounters another object, a smaller one this time such as a plastic token, they are then forced to accommodate to the object, altering their grasp in order to be able to pick up the token. According to Piaget (1952) there are times when we are able to assimilate most new experiences, other times we are forced to accommodate and adapt our structures to the environment and thats when we enter into a state called cognitive disequilibrium, also k nown as, cognitive conflict. Both Piaget and Vygotsky believe that development started off with cognitive conflict. The process of equilibration, continual balance, leads to the development of more efficient cognitive structures (Lutz and Sternberg, 1999). Similarly Vygotsky developed his own theory of cognitive development in children. However, he made an emphasis on the cultural context in which human development occurs. Like Piaget, Vygotsky was strongly committed to the idea that children were active explorers of their world who tested their ideas against reality, seeking to expand their knowledge. It is said that Vygotsky compares a child to an apprentice, whereas Piaget compares them to a scientist. However, unlike Piaget, who viewed children essentially as solitary figures involved in the construction of knowledge, Vygotsky believed that the childs social environment was an active force in their development, working to mould childrens growing knowledge in ways that were adaptive to the wider culture in which they grow up. Vygotskys perspective on child development is referred to as the socio-cultural view because of his emphasis on the childs culture and the social environment as forces which shape development. Vygotsky was a st rong advocate for the developmental method, unlike Piaget, who concentrated on the origins of mental processes and the transformations which they have to undergo. Vygotsky was obstinate in his belief that an individuals cognitive development was largely a social process, and not an individualistic construction as Piaget believed. Also unlike Piaget, Vygotsky focused on interactions with parents, siblings, peers, and the wider culture, who were more highly skilled than the child. And he believed that through the interaction with the child and through the instruction and assistance they provided, the childs cognitive development would be promoted. He believed that learning begins as an inter-personal activity. Whereby, gradually the learner is able to perform independently. Also his theory included the scaffolding learning, where the support is provided by teacher on specific task. It allows the learner to perform at a higher level. At any given point in the learning process, there is a difference between the level achieved when assisted and when alone, also known as the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). The scaffolding learning of Vygotskys method is still being used in this century because all over primary schools, children are still being assisted; however when they progress unto a stage where they feel co mfortable in their ability, the teacher or individual with higher knowledge gradually withdraws support according to process. He also believed that children acquire tools invented by society to support thinking in children, also known as the cultural tools, for example calculators, books and computers. Similarly to Piaget, Vygotsky believed that childrens egocentric speech was a part of their cognitive development. However, the two have different perspectives on how they viewed the purpose of egocentric speech. Piagets Egocentric speech suggests that the childs self centred and unable to consider the point of view of others. Whereas, Vygotskys Egocentric speech is seen as a transition between the childrens learning language in a social communicative context and attempting to internalize it as a private inner thought. Alongside that Piaget developed stages of child development through clinical methods because he felt development precedes learning. The stages of cognitive development are, the sensori-motor period (0-2 years) where children achieve represential thought, the pre-operational period (2-7 years) childrens reasoning is often illogical, after is the concrete operational period (7-11 years), children are able to reason about current, concrete situations, lastly the formal op erations stage (11-15) where children can reason about hypothetical situations. Piaget believed that the pre-operational stage is a time during early childhood when children start to reason, build concepts, and lay the foundation for concrete operations. Operations are initialized sets of actions that allow the child to do mentally what was done physically before. (Santrock, 2003). Piaget believed that illogical reasoning was due to: Animism, lack of reversibility, Egocentrism and Centration. Unlike Piaget, Vygotsky paid little attention to the role of the individual. He did not focus on the stages of development or the ages at which these might occur. However, like Piaget he did see the child as an active participant in learning rather than a passive recipient of information from other people. Both these theories share ideas about how a child starts to develop their cognitive skills. But they both understand it differently. The nature of Piagets investigations contrasts with the cultural-historical approach of Vygotskys research. Piaget is more concerned with the development of universal processes for the validation of knowledge, and Vygotsky is more focused on psycho-socio-historical genesis and its interpretations. Although these psychologists have received a lot of critics about which aspect of development they put more emphasis in, they have still contributed to our understanding of child cognitive development. It is only through their research and theory that others are able to progress onto finding out further details about how a childs mentality develops. Vygotsky and Piaget are often presented as opposites. However, a careful read of their theories reveals that they are not as dissimilar as they are presented to be (DeVries; Matusov Hayes, 2000).

Skinny Bitch: A Manual for Lifestyle Change

There are cuss words splashed throughout the book and the writer is very direct with her opinions. However, as the reader it was truly convincing and made me feel like I better get my butt up, throw out any meat and dairy in my kitchen, and get to the store and buy a case of tofu, ASAP. Because the diet Is vegan that means absolutely no meat, Including poultry, pork, and fish. Also no dairy, Including eggs, cheese, basically no animal by-products are allowed. There Is also a chapter on artificial sweeteners and processed food, which are not allowed In the diet either.The book tryingly suggest to quit smoking and cut back on alcohol, which I absolutely support; smoking is disgusting and large amounts of alcohol are unhealthy. The book is very captivating and educational. It educates the reader about more than Just what not to eat. It also goes deep into depth about what happens at slaughter houses and the mistreatment of farm animals in a way to both convince the reader to not eat mea t and to also explain that meat is not always a healthy choice, even chicken and eggs.The book explains the high amount of chemicals and hormones that are pumped into our farm animals and the effects they have on the unman body. For example on page 45, it reads, â€Å"Half of all the antibiotics made In the united States each year are administered to farm animals, causing antibiotic resistance In the humans who eat them†. That Is a pretty scary fact, there are many other scary facts littered throughout the book. The book also explains the Importance of exercise and how important it is to have a exercise regimen. Skinny Pitch† is not so much a diet book as much as it is a suggested manual for lifestyle change. If one is planning to follow the â€Å"Skinny Pitch† diet they need to legalize it is not temporary, becoming a vegan is not only a serious commitment but also a way of life. Grocery shopping, cooking at home, and eating out will all be effected by choosing a vegan lifestyle and if one has a family their eating habits might have to change as well. The â€Å"Skinny Pitch† diet is low in a few vitamins and minerals. Also low in saturated fat, 59% and sodium, 42%, which is a good thing.But also low In Vitamin D, 20% and Iron, 63%, which could cause a problem after a while, however I believe that the majority of Vitamin D Is acquired through natural sunlight. The diet provides over 100% DIR of protein, omega-6, dietary fiber, thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, Valetta 36, Foliate, vitamin C, vitamin A (REAL vitamin A (10), vitamin E, calcium, and magnesium. I feel the diet is different from the average individual's normal diet, American's let manly revolves around meat, wanly can make It extremely Doolittle to stay faithful to a non-meat, non-dairy diet.As mentioned above, it is a lifestyle change and a very intense personal decision. I believe that if one chooses to follow the â€Å"Skinny Pitch† diet they will most definitely lea rn new healthful ways to eat and if hey are used to eating the average American diet, one can definitely expect to keep weight off. However, if beginning the â€Å"Skinny Pitch† diet while already being mindful of what one eats I don't believe there would be a huge change in weight loss or gain.It is not necessarily a â€Å"low-fat† diet, rather it is a heaths eating lifestyle and even though the authors believe a true healthy diet does not contain meat or dairy that is not necessarily true. However, a decrease in meat and dairy consumption is a good choice for anyone who is trying to eat a more heart healthy diet. I believe that the â€Å"Skinny Pitch† diet could be a bit more expensive than average American diet. Purchasing soy over regular milk is more expensive. Finding soy and vegan products that taste good are indeed more expensive.On the other hand, if one is not purchasing large amounts of meat the costs may Just about equal out. I believe for the averag e American the â€Å"Skinny Pitch† diet would provide a calorie deficit, however for someone who is already mindful of their diet and includes a lot of fruits and vegetables in their diet, they may not see a large calorie deficit. Skinny Pitch† is not too low in calories. I believe the diet makes very reasonable claims regarding health and weight loss. It's simple: eat a healthy diet full of fruits, vegetables, and whole grains and overall health will improve.The diet is straightforward and honest, fat will not drop and health will not improve until one commits too lifestyle change, not a â€Å"quick fix†. Yes, it absolutely has required restrictions to certain foods. All meat, dairy, and any food the includes any animal by-products. Any processed food and any food that contains artificial sweeteners are not allowed. The credentials are indeed sound, the two women that wrote the book are both former models, and Kim Barbarian has received her Masters of Science in Holistic Nutrition. All the reviews that I read of â€Å"Skinny Pitch† said pretty much of the same thing.The book is written in a very straightforward way that will not leave anyone wondering what are healthy food choices. The New York Times review states that the book has a large focus on animal rights, which it does indeed. The Times also agrees that the book has an attitude but is â€Å"crystal-clear† on what is Junk food vs.. A healthy choice. Health. Mom's review mentions that the book might â€Å"pray' on women with eating disorders and may â€Å"take more of a toll on your self-esteem than your waistline† but also agrees that the diet is low in calories and could result in weight loss.Goggle Books says â€Å"Skinny Pitch† explains healthy eating habits and a â€Å"lifestyle that promotes whole grains, fruits, and vegetables, and encourages women to get excited about feeling â€Å"clean and pure and energize†. When compared to the materia l we have been studying in class this term, the book â€Å"Skinny Pitch† has a lot of similarities. The book describes healthy dating. It focuses on fruits, vegetables, and whole grains, which we have learned in class are all very healthy and the foods the average American needs to consume more regularly.I also like that the book explains how processed foods and refined sugars are not good for the human body, all lessons we have learned in class. Its also interesting that the book focuses on the treatment of animals and explains all the chemicals Tanat are Tea to ten animals, we nave talked auto Tanat In class as well. In only major difference between what we have learned in class and the book is that en can still have a healthy diet that includes meat and dairy, Just that moderation of the two are important to ensure a healthy heart and low cholesterol.I like this book and I believe that a vegan diet can be very healthy as long as one ensures that they are getting all the ne cessary vitamins and minerals. I have a very good friend who is vegan and she has managed to make some wonderful entrees and I always look forward to her dinner parties. She incorporates raw food as well which can be very tasty when prepared correctly. I would rate this diet as an 8. I live that it is healthy and I like how it's a lifestyle change, not Just a fad diet.Most fad diets do not work and weight is gained back within a year. I like how â€Å"Skinny Pitch† explains to the reader that there is no easy fix and that if one desires to be thin and healthy it takes determination and hard work, as with anything that is worth achieving. I would recommend this book to anyone that is interested in becoming a vegan. I would also recommend it to anyone who needs a wake up call in regards to their health and food choices and anyone who thinks that they can Jump on some crazy â€Å"diet wagon† and lose weight fast and easy.

Evaluate Motivation Theories Essay

Individuals join and work in organizations to fulfill their needs. They are paying attention to organizations that have the means of sustaining their needs. These means are called incentives of rewards; organizations use them to encourage individuals to contribute their efforts toward achieving organizational goals. The continued existence of an organization depends on its ability to interest and encourage individuals to accomplish these organizational and personal goals. Newman (2010), â€Å"Motivation is defined as goal-directed behavior. It concerns the level of effort one exerts in pursuing a goal. Managers are concerned with this concept because it is closely related to employee satisfaction and job performance† (Para. The Concept of Motivation). There are 2 main concepts of theories Maslow’s and Herzberg. Maslow’s need hierarchy theory divides human needs into five levels; self-actualization, esteem, social, safety and physiological needs. Physiological nee ds are the basic human needs including food, clothing, shelter and other necessities of life. Once these are satisfied they no longer motivate the individual. Safety needs include economic security, protection from physical danger. Social needs are love, affection, emotional needs, warmth and friendship. Esteem can be self-esteem, self-respect, self-confidence and recognition. Herzberg found that the factors causing job satisfaction (and presumably motivation) were different from that causing job dissatisfaction. Herzberg called it hygiene factors, using the term â€Å"hygiene† in the sense that they are considered maintenance factors that are necessary to avoid dissatisfaction but that by themselves do not provide satisfaction. Company policy, supervision, relationship with boss, work conditions, salary and relationship are the leading in dissatisfaction. Achievement, recognition, work itself, responsibility, advancement and growth are the leading to satisfaction. The effectiveness of the application of these theories can be measured with observations of employee job satisfaction. Managers can evaluate satisfaction through employee surveys or by observing workers. References: Newman, M. (2010). Motivation. Retrieved from http://business.ezine9.com/motivation-149b57b275.html

Definition and Examples of Existential Sentences in English